Standard+Level+SoW

State and compare quantities. State the ranges of magnitude of several quantities in nature. State ratios of quantities as differences of orders of magnitude. Estimate approximate orders of magnitude of everyday quantities.
 * IB Physics Scheme of Work **
 * **Topic** || **Lessons (1 hour blocks)** || **Resources** || **Homeworks** ||
 * **1: Physics and physical measurement**
 * (5 hours)** || **The realm of physics** // L.O. 1.1.1-1.1.4 //

State the fundamental units in the SI. Distinguish between fundamental and derived units. Convert between different units. State values in scientific notation and in multiples of units. ||  ||   || Error in measurement || Physics Investigations-Practical 1 ||   || Describe uncertainty and error in measurement. Determine uncertainties in calculated results. Calculate and draw uncertainties in graphs.
 * TOK: **This is a very stimulating area for a discussion of ways of knowing || PP presentation. ||  ||
 * ^  || **Measurements and uncertainties** // L.O. 1.2.1-1.2.5 //
 * ^  || **Measurements and uncertainties**
 * ^  || **Measurements and uncertainties** // L.O. 1.2.6-1.2.14 //

Investigating falling motion || Physics Investigations-Practical 2 ||   || Distinguish between vector and scalar quantities. Determine the sum or difference of two vectors by a graphical method. ||  ||   || Resolve vectors into perpendicular components along chosen axes. || Vectors set of problems. || Sum of vectors problems. || Define //displacement//, //velocity//, //speed// and //acceleration//. Explain the difference between instantaneous and average values of speed, velocity and acceleration. || PP presentation. ||  || Outline the conditions under which the equations for uniformly accelerated motion may be applied. || PP presentation. ||  || Identify the acceleration of a body falling in a vacuum near the Earth’s surface with the acceleration //g// of free fall. Solve problems involving the equations of uniformly accelerated motion. ||  ||   || Motion on an inclined plane ||   ||   || Describe the effects of air resistance on falling objects. || PP presentation. ||  || Draw and analyse distance-time graphs, displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs. Calculate and interpret the gradients of displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs, and the areas under velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs. ||  || Kinematics problems. || Determine relative velocity in one and in two dimensions. ||  ||   || Calculate the weight of a body. Identify the forces acting on a body and draw free-body diagrams. Determine the resultant force in different situations. || PP presentation. ||  || State Newton’s first law of motion. State the condition for and solve problems involving translational equilibrium. || PP presentation. || Translational equilibrium problems. || Vectors and equilibrium || Physics Investigations-Practical 5 ||  || State and solve problems involving Newton’s second law of motion. || PP presentation. || Dynamics problems. || Newton’s second law || Physics Investigations-Practical 4 ||  || Define //linear momentum// and //impulse//. Determine the impulse due to a time-varying force by interpreting a force-time graph. || PP presentation. ||  || State and solve problems involving the law of conservation of linear momentum. ||  ||   || State Newton’s third law of motion. || PP presentation. || Conservation of linear momentum problems. || Outline what is meant by work. Determine the work done by a non-constant force by interpreting a force-displacement graph. || PP presentation. ||  || Outline what is meant by kinetic energy and by change in gravitational potential energy. State the principle of conservation of energy. List different forms of energy and describe examples of the transformation of energy from one form to another. || PP presentation. ||  || Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions. Define //power//. Define and apply the concept of //efficiency//. || PP presentation. || Conservation of energy problems. || Energy and impulse || Physics Investigations-Practical 6 ||  || Draw a vector diagram to illustrate that the acceleration of a particle moving with constant speed in a circle is directed towards the centre of the circle. Apply the expression for centripetal acceleration. || PP presentation. ||  || Identify the force producing circular motion in various situations. Solve problems involving circular motion. ||  || Uniform circular motion problems. || Uniform circular motion || Physics Investigations-Practical 7 ||  || State that temperature determines the direction of thermal energy transfer. State the relation between the Kelvin and Celsius scales. State that the internal energy of a substance is the total potential energy and random kinetic energy of the molecules of the substance. Explain and distinguish between the macroscopic concepts of temperature, internal energy and thermal energy (heat). || PP presentation. ||  || Conservation of thermal energy || Physics Investigations-Practical 8 ||   || Define the //mole,// the //molar mass// and the //Avogadro constant//. || PP presentation. || Thermal concepts problems. || Define and solve problems involving //specific heat capacity// and //thermal capacity//. || PP presentation. ||  || Specific heat capacity of a metal || Physics Investigations-Practical 9 ||   || Explain the physical differences between the solid, liquid and gaseous phases in terms of molecular structure and particle motion. Describe and explain the process of phase changes in terms of molecular behaviour. || PP presentation. ||  || Explain in terms of molecular behaviour why temperature does not change during a phase change. Distinguish between evaporation and boiling. Define and solve problems involving //specific latent heat//. || PP presentation. || Thermal properties of matter problems. || Latent heat of fusion of ice || Physics Investigations-Practical 10 ||  || Define //pressure//. State the assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas.
 * TOK: **Data and its limitations is a fruitful area for discussion. || PP presentation. || Uncertainties in calculated results and graphs. Best fit line. ||
 * ^  || **Measurements and uncertainties**
 * ^  || **Vectors and scalars** // L.O. 1.3.1-1.3.2 //
 * ^  || **Vectors and scalars** // L.O. 1.3.3 //
 * **2: Mechanics**
 * (17 hours)** || **Kinematics** // L.O. 2.1.1-2.1.2 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics** // L.O. 2.1.3 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics** // L.O. 2.1.4-2.1.5 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics**
 * ^  || **Kinematics** // L.O. 2.1.6 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics** // L.O. 2.1.7-2.1.8 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics** // L.O. 2.1.9 //
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics** // L.O. 2.2.1-2.2.3 //
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics** // L.O. 2.2.4-2.2.7 //
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics**
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics** // L.O. 2.2.8-2.2.9 //
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics**
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics** // L.O. 2.2.10-2.2.11 //
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics** // L.O. 2.2.12-2.2.13 //
 * ^  || **Forces and dynamics** // L.O. 2.2.14-2.2.15 //
 * ^  || **Work, energy and power** // L.O. 2.3.1-2.3.3 //
 * ^  || **Work, energy and power** // L.O. 2.3.4-2.3.7 //
 * ^  || **Work, energy and power** // L.O. 2.3.8-2.3.11 //
 * ^  || **Work, energy and power**
 * ^  || **Uniform circular motion** // L.O. 2.4.1-2.4.2 //
 * ^  || **Uniform circular motion** // L.O. 2.4.3-2.4.4 //
 * || **Uniform circular motion**
 * **3: Thermal physics**
 * (7 hours)** || **Thermal concepts** // L.O. 3.1.1-3.1.4 //
 * ^  || **Thermal concepts**
 * ^  || **Thermal concepts** // L.O. 3.1.5-3.1.6 //
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter** // L.O. 3.2.1-3.2.2 //
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter**
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter** // L.O. 3.2.3-3.2.4 //
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter** // L.O. 3.2.5-3.2.8 //
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter**
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter** // L.O. 3.2.9-3.2.10 //

State that temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of the molecules of an ideal gas. Explain the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas in terms of a molecular model. ||  ||   || Describe examples of oscillations. Define the terms //displacement//, //amplitude//, //frequency//, //period// and //phase// //difference//. Define //simple harmonic motion// (//SHM//) and state the defining equation. || PP presentation. ||  || Solve problems, both graphically and by calculation, for acceleration, velocity and displacement during SHM. ||  ||   || Describe the interchange between kinetic energy and potential energy during SHM. Solve problems, both graphically and by calculation, involving energy changes during SHM. || PP presentation. || SHM problems. || Simple pendulum ||  ||   || State what is meant by damping. Describe examples of damped oscillations. ||  ||   || State what is meant by natural frequency of vibration and forced oscillations. Describe graphically the variation with forced frequency of the amplitude of vibration of an object close to its natural frequency of vibration. || PP presentation. ||  || State what is meant by resonance. Describe examples of resonance where the effect is useful and where it should be avoided. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe a wave pulse and a travelling wave. State that travelling waves transfer energy. Describe transverse and longitudinal waves. Describe waves in two dimensions, including the concepts of wavefronts and of rays. || PP presentation. ||  || Surface water waves in a ripple tank || Physics Investigations-Practical 13 ||   || Describe the terms crest, trough, compression and rarefaction. Define the terms //displacement//, //amplitude//, //frequency//, //period//, //wavelength//, //wave speed// and //intensity//. Draw and explain displacement-time graphs and displacement-position graphs for transverse and for longitudinal waves. Derive the relation between wave speed, wavelength and frequency. Recall the orders of magnitude of the wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. || PP presentation. || Wave characteristics problems. || Describe the reflection and transmission of waves at a boundary between two media. State and apply Snell’s law. || PP presentation. ||  || Refractive index of a semi-circular Perspex block || Physics Investigations-Practical 12 ||   || Explain and discuss qualitatively the diffraction of waves at apertures and obstacles. State the principle of superposition and explain what is meant by constructive interference and by destructive interference. State and apply the conditions for constructive and for destructive interference in terms of path difference and phase difference. || PP presentation. || Wave properties problems. || Define //electric potential difference//. Determine the change in potential energy when a charge moves between two points at different potentials. Define the //electronvolt//. || PP presentation. ||  || Define //electric current// and //resistance//. || PP presentation. ||  || State the relation between resistance and the resistivity of the material of the resistor. State Ohm’s law. Compare ohmic and non-ohmic behaviour. || PP presentation. ||  || Ohm’s Law || Physics Investigations-Practical 14 ||   || Derive and apply expressions for electrical power dissipation in resistors. ||  ||   || Heating effects of a current || Physics Investigations-Practical 16 ||   || Define //electromotive force// (//emf//). Describe the concept of internal resistance. || PP presentation. ||  || Apply the equations for resistors in series and in parallel. Draw circuit diagrams. Describe the use of ideal ammeters and ideal voltmeters. ||  || Electric circuits and Ohm’s law problems. || Describe a potential divider. Explain the use of sensors in potential divider circuits. ||  ||   || State Newton’s universal law of gravitation. || PP presentation. ||  || Define //gravitational field strength//. Determine the gravitational field due to one or more point masses. Derive an expression for gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet, assuming that all its mass is concentrated at its centre.
 * TOK: **The use of modelling in science may be introduced here. || PP presentation. ||  ||
 * ^  || **Thermal properties of matter** // L.O. 3.2.11-3.2.12 //
 * **4: Oscillations and waves**
 * (10 hours)** || **Kinematics of simple harmonic motion (SHM)** // L.O. 4.1.1-4.1.4 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics of simple harmonic motion (SHM)** // L.O. 4.1.5-4.1.6 //
 * ^  || **Energy changes during simple harmonic motion (SHM)** // L.O. 4.2.1-4.2.3 //
 * ^  || **Kinematics of simple harmonic motion (SHM)**
 * ^  || **Forced oscillations and resonance** // L.O. 4.3.1-4.3.2 //
 * ^  || **Forced oscillations and resonance** // L.O. 4.3.3-4.3.4 //
 * ^  || **Forced oscillations and resonance** // L.O. 4.3.5-4.3.6 //
 * ^  || **Wave characteristics** // L.O. 4.4.1-4.4.4 //
 * ^  || **Wave characteristics**
 * ^  || **Wave characteristics** // L.O. 4.4.5-4.4.9 //
 * ^  || **Wave properties** // L.O. 4.5.1-4.5.2 //
 * ^  || **Wave properties**
 * ^  || **Wave properties** // L.O. 4.5.3-4.5.7 //
 * **5: Electric currents**
 * (7 hours)** || **Electric potential difference, current and resistance** // L.O. 5.1.1-5.1.4 //
 * ^  || **Electric potential difference, current and resistance** // L.O. 5.1.5-5.1.6 //
 * ^  || **Electric potential difference, current and resistance** // L.O. 5.1.7-5.1.9 //
 * ^  || **Electric potential difference, current and resistance**
 * ^  || **Electric potential difference, current and resistance** // L.O. 5.1.10-5.1.11 //
 * ^  || **Electric potential difference, current and resistance**
 * ^  || **Electric circuits** // L.O. 5.2.1-5.2.2 //
 * ^  || **Electric circuits** // L.O. 5.2.3-5.2.5 //
 * ^  || **Electric circuits** // L.O. 5.2.6-5.2.8 //
 * **6: Fields and forces**
 * (7 hours)** || **Gravitational force and field** // L.O. 6.1.1 //
 * ^  || **Gravitational force and field** // L.O. 6.1.2-6.1.5 //

State that there are two types of electric charge. State and apply the law of conservation of charge. Describe and explain the difference in the electrical properties of conductors and insulators. || PP presentation. ||  || State Coulomb’s law. || PP presentation. ||  || Define //electric field strength//. Determine the electric field strength due to one or more point charges. Draw the electric field patterns for different charge configurations. || PP presentation. || Electric force and fields problems. || Electric field patterns || Physics Investigations-Practical 19 ||  || State that moving charges give rise to magnetic fields. Draw magnetic field patterns due to currents. || PP presentation. ||  || Determine the direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field. Determine the direction of the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. Define the //magnitude// and //direction// of a magnetic field. || PP presentation. ||  || Force on a moving charge || Physics Investigations-Practical 20 || Magnetic force and field problems. || Describe a model of the atom that features a small nucleus surrounded by electrons. Outline the evidence that supports a nuclear model of the atom. Outline one limitation of the simple model of the nuclear atom. Outline evidence for the existence of atomic energy levels. || PP presentation. ||  || Explain the terms nuclide, isotope and nucleon. Define //nucleon number A//, //proton number Z// and //neutron number N//. Describe the interactions in a nucleus. ||  ||   || Describe the phenomenon of natural radioactive decay. Describe the properties of alpha (α) and beta (β) particles and gamma (γ) radiation. Describe the ionizing properties of alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation. || PP presentation. ||  || Outline the biological effects of ionizing radiation. Explain why some nuclei are stable while others are unstable. ||  ||   || State that radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process and that the rate of decay decreases exponentially with time. Define the term //radioactive half//// ‑ ////life//. Determine the half-life of a nuclide from a decay curve. || PP presentation. || Radioactivity problems. || Radioactive penetration || Physics Investigations-Practical 21 ||  || Describe and give an example of an artificial (induced) transmutation. Construct and complete nuclear equations. Define the term //unified atomic mass unit//. ||  ||   || Apply the Einstein mass-energy equivalence relationship. Define the concepts of //mass defect//, //binding energy// and //binding energy per nucleon//. Draw and annotate a graph showing the variation with nucleon number of the binding energy per nucleon. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Apply the graph in 7.3.6 to account for the energy release in the processes of fission and fusion. || PP presentation. ||  || State that nuclear fusion is the main source of the Sun’s energy. Solve problems involving fission and fusion reactions. ||  || Nuclear reactions problems. || State that thermal energy may be completely converted to work in a single process, but that continuous conversion of this energy into work requires a cyclical process and the transfer of some energy from the system. Explain what is meant by degraded energy. || PP presentation. ||  || Construct and analyse energy flow diagrams (Sankey diagrams) and identify where the energy is degraded. Outline the principal mechanisms involved in the production of electrical power. || PP presentation. ||  || Identify different world energy sources. Outline and distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources. Define the //energy density// of a fuel. Discuss how choice of fuel is influenced by its energy density. || PP presentation. ||  || State the relative proportions of world use of the different energy sources that are available. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources. ||  || Power generation and energy density of a fuel problems. || Combustion of a fuel || Physics Investigations-Practical 22 ||  || Outline the historical and geographical reasons for the widespread use of fossil fuels. Discuss the energy density of fossil fuels with respect to the demands of power stations. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages associated with the transportation and storage of fossil fuels. State the overall efficiency of power stations fuelled by different fossil fuels. Describe the environmental problems associated with the recovery of fossil fuels and their use in power stations. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe how neutrons produced in a fission reaction may be used to initiate further fission reactions (chain reaction). Distinguish between controlled and uncontrolled nuclear fission. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe what is meant by fuel enrichment. Describe the main energy transformations that take place in a nuclear power station. Discuss the role of the moderator and the control rods in the production of controlled fission in a thermal fission reactor. Discuss the role of the heat exchanger in a fission reactor. Describe how neutron capture by a nucleus of uranium-238 (238U) results in the production of a nucleus of plutonium-239 (239Pu). Describe the importance of plutonium-239 (239Pu) as a nuclear fuel. || PP presentation. ||  || Discuss safety issues and risks associated with the production of nuclear power. Outline the problems associated with producing nuclear power using nuclear fusion. ||  ||   || Distinguish between a photovoltaic cell and a solar heating panel. Outline reasons for seasonal and regional variations in the solar power incident per unit area of the Earth’s surface. || PP presentation. ||  || Distinguish between different hydroelectric schemes. Describe the main energy transformations that take place in hydroelectric schemes. || PP presentation. ||  || Outline the basic features of a wind generator. Determine the power that may be delivered by a wind generator, assuming that the wind kinetic energy is completely converted into mechanical kinetic energy, and explain why this is impossible. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe the principle of operation of an oscillating water column (OWC) ocean-wave energy converter. Determine the power per unit length of a wavefront, assuming a rectangular profile for the wave. || PP presentation. || Non-fossil fuel power production problems. || Wind power || Physics Investigations-Practical 23 ||  || Calculate the intensity of the Sun’s radiation incident on a planet. Define //albedo//. State factors that determine a planet’s albedo. ||  ||   || Describe the greenhouse effect. Identify the main greenhouse gases and their sources. Explain the molecular mechanisms by which greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation. Analyse absorption graphs to compare the relative effects of different greenhouse gases. || PP presentation. ||  || Outline the nature of black-body radiation. Draw and annotate a graph of the emission spectra of black bodies at different temperatures. State the Stefan–Boltzmann law and apply it to compare emission rates from different surfaces. Apply the concept of emissivity to compare the emission rates from the different surfaces. Define //surface heat capacity C//s. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe some possible models of global warming. State what is meant by the enhanced greenhouse effect. Identify the increased combustion of fossil fuels as the likely major cause of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Describe the evidence that links global warming to increased levels of greenhouse gases. Outline some of the mechanisms that may increase the rate of global warming. || PP presentation. ||  || Define //coefficient of volume expansion//. State that one possible effect of the enhanced greenhouse effect is a rise in mean sea-level. Outline possible reasons for a predicted rise in mean sea-level. || PP presentation. ||  || Identify climate change as an outcome of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Identify some possible solutions to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect. Discuss international efforts to reduce the enhanced greenhouse effect. || PP presentation. || Greenhouse effect and global warming problems. || Describe what is meant by a frame of reference. Describe what is meant by a Galilean transformation.
 * TOK: **The concept of fields in science is well worth exploring. || PP presentation. ||  ||
 * ^  || **Electric force and field** // L.O. 6.2.1-6.2.3 //
 * ^  || **Electric force and field** // L.O. 6.2.4 //
 * ^  || **Electric force and field** // L.O. 6.2.5-6.2.8 //
 * ^  || **Electric force and field**
 * ^  || **Magnetic force and field** // L.O. 6.3.1-6.3.2 //
 * ^  || **Magnetic force and field** // L.O. 6.3.3-6.3.6 //
 * || **Magnetic force and field**
 * **7: Atomic and nuclear physics**
 * (9 hours)** || **The atom** // L.O. 7.1.1-7.1.4 //
 * ^  || **The atom** // L.O. 7.1.5-7.1.7 //
 * ^  || **Radioactive decay** // L.O. 7.2.1-7.2.3 //
 * ^  || **Radioactive decay** // L.O. 7.2.3-7.2.5 //
 * ^  || **Radioactive decay** // L.O. 7.2.6-7.2.9 //
 * ^  || **Radioactive decay**
 * ^  || **Nuclear reactions, fission and fusion** // L.O. 7.3.1-7.3.3 //
 * ^  || **Nuclear reactions, fission and fusion** // L.O. 7.3.4-7.3.7 //
 * ^  || **Nuclear reactions, fission and fusion** // L.O. 7.3.8-7.3.9 //
 * ^  || **Nuclear reactions, fission and fusion** // L.O. 7.3.10-7.3.11 //
 * **8: Energy, power and climate change**
 * (18 hours)** || **Energy degradation and power generation** // L.O. 8.1.1-8.1.2 //
 * ^  || **Energy degradation and power generation** // L.O. 8.1.3-8.1.4 //
 * ^  || **World energy sources** // L.O. 8.2.1-8.2.4 //
 * ^  || **World energy sources** // L.O. 8.2.5-8.2.6 //
 * ^  || **World energy sources**
 * ^  || **Fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.3.1-8.3.5 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.1-8.4.2 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.3-8.4.8 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.9-8.4.11 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.12-8.4.14 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.15-8.4.17 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.18-8.4.20 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production** // L.O. 8.4.21-8.4.23 //
 * ^  || **Non-fossil fuel power production**
 * ^  || **Greenhouse effect** // L.O. 8.5.1-8.5.3 //
 * ^  || **Greenhouse effect** // L.O. 8.5.4-8.5.7 //
 * ^  || **Greenhouse effect** // L.O. 8.5.8-8.5.13 //
 * ^  || **Global warming** // L.O. 8.6.1-8.6.5 //
 * ^  || **Global warming** // L.O. 8.6.6-8.6.8 //
 * ^  || **Global warming** // L.O. 8.6.9-8.6.12 //
 * **Opt D: Relativity and particle physics**
 * (15 hours)** || **Introduction to relativity** // L.O. D.1.1-D.1.3 //

Describe what is meant by an inertial frame of reference. State the two postulates of the special theory of relativity. || PP presentation. ||  || Discuss the concept of simultaneity. || Cosmos video. || Concepts of special relativity problems. || Describe the concept of a light clock. Define //proper time interval//. || PP presentation. ||  || Derive the time dilation formula. Sketch and annotate a graph showing the variation with relative velocity of the Lorentz factor. || PP presentation. ||  || Solve problems involving time dilation. ||  ||   || Define //proper length//. Describe the phenomenon of length contraction. || PP presentation. ||  || Solve problems involving length contraction. ||  || Relativistic kinematics problems. || State what is meant by an elementary particle. Identify elementary particles. Describe particles in terms of mass and various quantum numbers.
 * TOK: **This is an opportunity to introduce the concept of a paradigm shift in relation to scientific understanding. The role of theories and their testing by experiment is crucial here. The meaning of time, the concepts of time dilation and length contraction, the absolute value of the velocity of EM waves are all stimulating ideas for discussion. || PP presentation. ||  ||
 * ^  || **Concepts and postulates of special relativity** // L.O. D.2.1-D.2.2 //
 * ^  || **Concepts and postulates of special relativity** // L.O. D.2.3 //
 * ^  || **Relativistic kinematics** // L.O. D.3.1-D.3.2 //
 * ^  || **Relativistic kinematics** // L.O. D.3.3-D.3.3 //
 * ^  || **Relativistic kinematics** // L.O. D.3.5 //
 * ^  || **Relativistic kinematics** // L.O. D.3.6-D.3.7 //
 * ^  || **Relativistic kinematics** // L.O. D.3.8 //
 * ^  || **Particles and interactions** // L.O. D.4.1-D.4.3 //

Classify particles according to spin. State what is meant by an antiparticle. State the Pauli exclusion principle. || PP presentation. ||  || List the fundamental interactions. Describe the fundamental interactions in terms of exchange particles. Discuss the uncertainty principle for time and energy in the context of particle creation. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe what is meant by a Feynman diagram. Discuss how a Feynman diagram may be used to calculate probabilities for fundamental processes. Describe what is meant by virtual particles. || PP presentation. || Particles and interactions problems. || Apply the formula for the range //R// for interactions involving the exchange of a particle. Describe pair annihilation and pair production through Feynman diagrams. Predict particle processes using Feynman diagrams. || PP presentation. CERN video. ||  || List the six types of quark. State the content, in terms of quarks and antiquarks, of hadrons (that is, baryons and mesons). State the quark content of the proton and the neutron. Define //baryon number// and apply the law of conservation of baryon number. Deduce the spin structure of hadrons (that is, baryons and mesons). || PP presentation. ||  || Explain the need for colour in forming bound states of quarks. State the colour of quarks and gluons. Outline the concept of strangeness. Discuss quark confinement. Discuss the interaction that binds nucleons in terms of the colour force between quarks. || PP presentation. || Quarks problems. || Outline the general structure of the solar system. Distinguish between a stellar cluster and a constellation.
 * TOK: **D4 and D5 contain a wealth of material for discussion, for example, the nature of observation, the meaning of measurement, and the meaning of evidence. How developments in one field lead to breakthroughs in another is also a fascinating topic, for example, particle physics and cosmology. || PP presentation. ||  ||
 * ^  || **Particles and interactions** // L.O. D.4.4-D.4.6 //
 * ^  || **Particles and interactions** // L.O. D.4.7-D.4.9 //
 * ^  || **Particles and interactions** // L.O. D.4.10-D.4.12 //
 * ^  || **Particles and interactions** // L.O. D.4.13-D.4.15 //
 * ^  || **Quarks** // L.O. D.5.1-D.5.5 //
 * ^  || **Quarks** // L.O. D.5.6-D.5.10 //
 * **Opt E: Astrophysics**
 * (15 hours)** || **Introduction to the universe** // L.O. E.1.1-E.1.2 //

Cosmos video. ||  || Define the //light year.// Compare the relative distances between stars within a galaxy and between galaxies, in terms of order of magnitude. Describe the apparent motion of the stars/constellations over a period of a night and over a period of a year, and explain these observations in terms of the rotation and revolution of the Earth. || PP presentation. || Introduction to the universe || State that fusion is the main energy source of stars. Explain that, in a stable star (for example, our Sun), there is an equilibrium between radiation pressure and gravitational pressure. || PP presentation. ||  || Define the //luminosity// of a star. Define //apparent brightness// and state how it is measured. Apply the Stefan-Boltzmann law to compare the luminosities of different stars. State Wien’s (displacement) law and apply it to explain the connection between the colour and temperature of stars. || PP presentation. ||  || Explain how atomic spectra may be used to deduce chemical and physical data for stars. Describe the overall classification system of spectral classes. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe the different types of star. Discuss the characteristics of spectroscopic and eclipsing binary stars. Identify the general regions of star types on a Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram. || PP presentation. || Stellar radiation and stellar types problems. || Define the //parsec.// Describe the stellar parallax method of determining the distance to a star. Explain why the method of stellar parallax is limited to measuring stellar distances less than several hundred parsecs. || PP presentation. ||  || Describe the apparent magnitude scale. Define //absolute magnitude//. ||  ||   || State that the luminosity of a star may be estimated from its spectrum. Explain how stellar distance may be determined using apparent brightness and luminosity. State that the method of spectroscopic parallax is limited to measuring stellar distances less than about 10 Mpc. ||  ||   || Outline the nature of a Cepheid variable. State the relationship between period and absolute magnitude for Cepheid variables. || PP presentation. ||  || Explain how Cepheid variables may be used as “standard candles”. Determine the distance to a Cepheid variable using the luminosity-period relationship. || PP presentation. || Stellar distances problems. || Describe Newton’s model of the universe. Explain Olbers’ paradox. || PP presentation. ||  || Suggest that the red-shift of light from galaxies indicates that the universe is expanding. Describe both space and time as originating with the Big Bang. Describe the discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. Explain how cosmic radiation in the microwave region is consistent with the Big Bang model. Suggest how the Big Bang model provides a resolution to Olbers’ paradox. || PP presentation. ||  || Distinguish between the terms open, flat and closed when used to describe the development of the universe. Define the term //critical density// by reference to a flat model of the development of the universe. Discuss how the density of the universe determines the development of the universe. Discuss problems associated with determining the density of the universe. State that current scientific evidence suggests that the universe is open. || PP presentation. ||  || Discuss an example of the international nature of recent astrophysics research. Evaluate arguments related to investing significant resources into researching the nature of the universe. || PP presentation. || Cosmology problems. ||
 * TOK: **This option also allows for much discussion of scientific theories (on the nature and origin of the universe) and how those theories are developed and accepted or abandoned. || PP presentation.
 * ^  || **Introduction to the universe** // L.O. E.1.3-E.1.5 //
 * ^  || **Stellar radiation and stellar types** // L.O. E.2.1-E.2.2 //
 * ^  || **Stellar radiation and stellar types** // L.O. E.2.3-E.2.6 //
 * ^  || **Stellar radiation and stellar types** // L.O. E.2.7-E.2.8 //
 * ^  || **Stellar radiation and stellar types** // L.O. E.2.9-E.2.11 //
 * ^  || **Stellar distances** // L.O. E.3.1-E.3.4 //
 * ^  || **Stellar distances** // L.O. E.3.5-E.3.8 //
 * ^  || **Stellar distances** // L.O. E.3.9-E.3.12 //
 * ^  || **Stellar distances** // L.O. E.3.13-E.3.14 //
 * ^  || **Stellar distances** // L.O. E.3.15-E.3.16 //
 * ^  || **Cosmology** // L.O. E.4.1-E.4.2 //
 * ^  || **Cosmology** // L.O. E.4.3-E.4.7 //
 * ^  || **Cosmology** // L.O. E.4.8-E.4.12 //
 * ^  || **Cosmology** // L.O. E.4.13-E.4.14 //