Explain+effects+of+participant+expectations+and+researcher+bias+in+qualitative+research.

Write a summary of pages 350-353 of your textbook, after that write a SAQ of this learning outcome. (you need to be able to define the main concepts and localize key vocabulary)

It is imperative to comprehend that subjects to experimentation are not oblivious or, do not respond passively to research. Because of that, researchers must understand that their experimentation is an active process that must not be affected by interrogation of the data, the participant or the research context; for it could lead to either __Participant expectations__ or __Researcher bias.__
 * //Effects of Participant Expectations and Researcher Bias in qualitative research.//**

It is assumed that "reality" in a research study is multiple and co-constructed, meaning that the participants who are asked to comment the researchers interpretation of the data will not necessarily arrive as the same interpretations than the latter.

DEFINITIONS:


 * Participant Expectations: Participant´s ideas of the research and the research which can affect the trustworthiness of the data. ex: If they feel they should act a certain way. This can be minimized by reflexivity throughout the research process.
 * Researcher Bias: It is the researcher´s own beliefs that determine the research process. It is imperative in qualitative research that participants perceptions and beliefs in understanding social processes must be given priority to the researcher´s own.

**Importance of credibility in qualitative research**

//Credibility // corresponds to the concept of internal validity that is used in quantitative research; it’s linked to the concept of trustworthiness. //Trustworthiness // of research is established when the findings of the research reflect the meaning as they are described by the participants. Some qualitative researchers, like Sandelowski, 1993, argue that issues of validity in qualitative studies shouldn’t be linked to truth or value, but rather to trustworthiness, which can be obtains if the researchers try to make their reflections and decisions in the researcher process transparent, so that they can be examined. A study is trustworthy if, and ONLY if, the reader of the researcher report judges it to be so- Rolfe, 2006. Qualitative researchers could check whether their accounts are credible by referring to others’ interpretation of the data, or by applying other methods of analysis in relation to the same subject matter. According to Guba and Lincoln, 1989, such peer reviews are the single most critical technique for establishing credibility within each individual study.

**Effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research **

//Triangulation // is a kind of cross-checking of information and conclusions in research, thanks to the use of multiple procedures or sources. If there’s agreement between the procedures or sources, there is support, or corroboration, of the interpretation of the data. Moreover, triangulation involves the use of different perspectives, methods, and sources to check if the interpretation of data can be supported. Furthermore, triangulation can provide a new way of looking at the same data, and it can add credibility if it confirms the conclusions that have been drawn. However, the only way to get closer to the truth is to carefully examine all the evidence and see whether it supports the interpretation. Many qualitative researchers believe that triangulation can be useful in checking if the findings are trustworthy. There are different forms of triangulation:
 * //__<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Method triangulation __//<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- involves comparing data that come from the use of different methods. This could involve qualitative and quantitative methods.
 * //__<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Data triangulation __//<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- involves comparing data that come from data gathered from other participants or other sources, for example collected by different qualitative methods.
 * //__<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Researcher triangulation __//<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">- involves the use of several observers, interviewers, or researchers to compare and check data collection and interpretation.
 * //__<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Theory triangulation- __//<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> involves looking at the data using different theoretical perspectives.

<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In addition, it can establish a set of strategies, which can increase confidence that research findings actually represent the meanings presented by the participant. However, the most radical qualitative researchers argue that it’s not possible to establish predetermines, distinct criteria for trustworthiness and credibility, because qualitative research is based on more or less subjective interpretations of the world.

** Reflexivity in qualitative research **

Reflexivity is based on the assumption that it is important that the researcher is aware of his/her own contribution to the construction of meaning in the research process. It’s a process that occurs throughout the research. Also, it allows the researcher to reflect on ways in which bias may occur, by acknowledging that his/her own background and beliefs can influence the way the research is conducted. According to Willing, 2001, there are 2 types of reflexivity:
 * //__ Personal reflexivity- __// involves reflecting on the ways in which factors such as the researcher’s values, beliefs, interests, experiences, and political commitment have influenced the research. Also, it involves thinking about how the research has affected the researcher personally and professionally.
 * //__ Epistemological reflexivity- __// thinking about the ways in which knowledge has been generated in the study.

Nonetheless, some qualitative researchers consider both personal and epistemological reflexivity to be an integral part of the research report, while others acknowledge the importance of reflexivity, but do not include an in-depth discussion of it in their research reports.

__SAQ__
//**Outline** the importance of eliminating **participant expectation** during a **qualitative research.**//

To begin with, qualitative research is based on subjective interpretations of the world so it is open to some uncertainty; this uncertainty affects the validity and the trustworthiness of a case study and it must be eliminated at all cost.

When taking part on a research, the test subjects are not oblivious to what is going on, human curiosity will get the best out of them and they’ll try to figure out what is the research truly about and how does the researcher expect them to do or behave, this is called participant’s expectations, once they have an idea they react in a way in which they wouldn’t do on a different occasion, trying to unconsciously sabotage the experiment or support the hypothesis, either way they are giving the researcher false data.

Moreover, the test subject are not the only ones who may cause inaccurate interpretations, the researcher bias is another issue in which the Researcher does not manage to see through what he is looking for, the participant’s actual interpretation is ignored to support the hypothesis, it is important to be eliminated because the knowledge gained from the participant’s interpretations will not be true. Furthermore, a way to get rid of these biases is to increase the investigation’s reliability by having more researchers to compare results with or by triangulation that consist on comparing data from different sources, points of view and quantitative research.